Significant Periods in the History of Women in Ireland

R. A. Harris, September 2007

Prior to 1600 High status of Celtic/Gaelic women. Nine levels of marriage, all appear to favor women.

1169-1200 Period of invasions of Anglo-Norman barons from England. Establishment of first English foothold in Ireland. Despite considerable intermarriage, Normans disapproved of freedom of Irish women. "Their nearest books were women's looks which right good Irish gave them." See Giraldus Cambrensis, The History and Topography of Ireland.

1520-1603 Establishment of Tudor dynasty (Henry VII, VIII, Edward, Mary, Elizabeth I) determined to bring "civility" to Ireland. Introduction of Plantation Policy whereby Ireland to be 'planted' with settlers qualified to tame unruly Anglo-Irish barons and Gaelic chiefs. Result: Wild Geese flight to continental armies. Some wives of the Wild Geese remained, often to negotiate as equals with English authorities. Others left to seek religious asylum; upper class women sought pensions from king of Spain. Women also involved in business. Irish colonies overseas created by marriage to Irish men. Irish women often sent to Continent for education.

1603 + Following Elizabeth’s death, establishment of Stuart dynasty (James I, Charles I, Charles II, James II). Northern Ireland (Ulster) settled by smallholder farming families from Scotland, very unlike large plantations of southern half of country. Poor northern soils mean that agriculture + home industry necessary for family survival.

1715 + First leases of Scots-Irish immigrants in north up for renewal; refusal to pay higher rents leads to first outflow of Scots-Irish to North America. During century, single Catholic males emigrate; marriage in American assimilates them into host Protestant population.

1740 + Shift from largely oat and animal products-based diet to potato consumption. Potatoes more efficient to cultivate, i.e., four times the productivity per acre of grain crops. Farming plots reduced greatly in size as farming families continue to divide between all sons of family (partible inheritance), providing daughters with dowries to enable them to marry. Irish women assume increasingly important role in rural family economy as spinners, etc.; often earning only cash income of family. See Brian Merriman, The Midnight Court.

1770 + Acceleration of seasonal migration from counties in southern regions of Ireland -- Cork, Waterford -- in search of income supplements. Agricultural migrants travel seasonally to counties adjacent to Dublin for work, some to south of England, area supplying growing urban area of London. Extensive cottage industries in spinning and weaving, mostly in Ulster but scattered throughout Ireland.

Landlords encourage spinning among female tenants in order to ensure payment of rents; this leads to increasingly important economic role for Irish women within the family. Emigration is primarily that of families with capital. Transport expensive until development of steam ships in 1840s.

1845-1849 The Great Famine. Collapse of the subsistence potato economy devastates migrant laboring class. Economic role of women diminished; women were largest single group to suffer from effects of the Famine. Families sought to conserve resources by granting dowries to only one daughter. Surplus daughters had few choices: many became nuns; many more emigrated abroad. (Trend continued so by 1921 45% of women in Ireland between 25 and 45 years of age were unmarried.)

1850 + Temporary migration continues from some areas in the far west of Ireland, but tends to perpetuate poverty of the regions, which are marked by unhealthy pre-famine conditions. West of Ireland largely dependent on emigrant network, marked by out-migration of large number of single females to America as female status continues decline.

1880s Land tenure so transformed that by 1903 Ireland a nation of small farmers. Irish families determined to preserve family farms, squeezed out all but inheriting sons; while emigrating children constantly reminded of their obligation to support the family by remittances from abroad.

1918 + End of WWI marked independence for Ireland, but rural economy continues decline. Surge of emigrant flow to America, only curtailed by US immigration cutbacks.

1939-1945 WWII an important boost to Irish economy by providing jobs in UK war economy. Post 1945 Irish women again defeated by deterioration of job opportunity.

1950s Outflow of next wave of Irish women to America

1960s Improvements in Irish economy stem emigration temporarily.

1980s Shocks to Irish economy once again force out-migration to America.

1990s to

present Booming Irish economy encourages many to return. Green cards enable emigrants to shift back and forth with changes in opportunity.